Occidental Course in 10 Lessons

About

Author

Mag. phil. A.Z. Ramstedt, Helsingfors

Original title in German

Okzidental-Kursus in 10 Lektionen

Original publisher

Occidental-Büro Berlin, 1929

Transcription of the original contents

Thomas Schmidt, 2006

English translation, orthographic modernization and new additions

Dave MacLeod, 2019. Title: Occidental Course in 10 Lessons (English translation)

Conversion to Asciidoctor, revision and e-book edition

Marcos Cruz, 2019, 2020

http://ne.alinome.net/en.html

(Please note that Marcos is not the author of this capsule [as websites are called in the Geminispace]. His edition of this book served only as a template.)

NOTE:

Pronuciation

Alphabet

Interlingue is written with the 26 Latin letters:

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, i, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z.

Vowels

The vowels have a continental pronunciation, as in German, Italian and Spanish, and are all sounded:

a → father

e → bed, yes

i → machine

o → door, hot

u → rule, pull

»y« is considered a vowel when 1) it’s not preceded by a vowel, or 2) it’s at the start of a word and not followed by a vowel. Elsewhere it’s a consonant. Its pronunciation as a vowel is as Interlingue »i«.

All unstressed vowels are short. Stressed vowels can be lengthened if they are not followed by a doubled consonant.

A strict rule on the long or short, closed or open pronunciation of the vowels does not exist. Pronunciations similar to German, Italian or Spanish are preferable.

Consonants

The consonants are pronounced as in English, with the following exceptions:

c → When before »e« and »i« = [ts]: cive, helice. Elsewhere »c« is hard as in »can«.

ch → [ʃ], English »sh«[1]: chambre.

g → When before »e« and »i« = [ʒ], French »j«, or English »s« in »pleasure«: plage, giraffe. Elsewhere »g« is hard as in »go«.

j → [ʒ], French »j«, or English »s« in »pleasure«.

s → Between vowels = [z]: rose, positive.

ss → [s] as in »pass«.

t → When followed by »ia«, »io«, »iu«, or »ie« and not preceded by an »s« = [ts]: nation. Elsewhere as [t]: bastion.

z → [dz].

zz → [ts].

Other doubled consonants are pronounced as a single consonant, unless when separated they would be pronounced differently. Ex. »grammatica« is pronounced as if written »gramatica«, but »occidental« and »suggestion« are pronounced as if written as »oc« followed by »cidental«, and »sug« followed by »gestion«.

Stress

NOTE: In the following examples, the regularly stressed vowel is shown in uppercase.

The names of the letters

The letters of the alphabet are pronounced as:

a, be, ce, de, e, ef, ge, ha, i, jot, ka, el, em, en, o, pe, qu, er, es, te, u, ve, duplic ve, ix, ypsilon, zet.

1. Unesim letion

1.1 Textus

1.1.1 Un international congress

Noi have un grand international congress in li cité. Li nationes de Europa es representat per eminent cultural persones. Li centre del congress es in li palace del parlament. Elegant modern automobiles sta ante li portas e sur li stradas e plazzas. Li fassades es decorat per li national flaggas. Li flaggas del nordic landes have li cruce quam simbol. On vide delegationes de diversi partes de Europa, de nord e sud, de ost e west. Un deputation visita li presidente del state in li grandiosi residentie contra li ópera. Special corespondentes fa observationes e scri articules por li redactiones de grand jurnales e telegrafa al burós de information.

In li grand sala del palace es li general convention. In li micri chambres li special comissiones e comités have secret conferenties. Nu li oficial programma comensa. Li borgomastre del cité saluta li congressantes. On electe un presidente. Du secretarios scri li protocoles. Un delegat del central states presenta un proposition pri li organisation del international trafic per aeroplanes. Li orator parla con fascinant eloquentie e li auditoria escuta con interesse e aplaude con entusiasme. Un polemic debatte comensa e it fini per un resolution in favor al propositor. On accepta li proposition e refusa li contrapropositiones.

In li vestibules e corridores sta gruppes de persones, famosi professores de universitás, rich directores de commercial firmas, energic secretarios de social e professional organisationes, e militares in gala-uniformes. Ili have portafolias con documentes e actes e discusse li actual situation e international aferes.

Vocabularium

1.1.2 Li macules in li sole

Un yun monaco sede in un turre e observa interessat li sole tra un telescope. Per hasard il fa un sensational observation: it existe macules in li sole. Il hasta al prior del monastere e exclama:

Patre, qui nu posse esser sin macules, nam mem li sole have macules.

Ma li prior responde tranquilmen:

Tu erra, mi filio. Yo ha leet Aristóteles multvez, de comensa til fine, e necú il mentiona pri macules in li sole. Tui ocules have macules, e ne li sole.

Vocabularium

1.1.3 Aforismes

Genie es un percent inspiration e ninant nin percent transpiration
—Edison

Li humore es un del elementes del genie, ma, si it dómina, solmen un surogat de it; it es li compane del diminuent arte e destructe, anihila it in fine.
—Goethe

Un bon comedie es plu durabil quam un sistema de filosofie.
—Hume

Grand artistes es li sol riches qui divide lor tot felicie con nos.
—Pauly

Vocabularium

1.2 Explanations

Reading the first lesson, we find that the majority of words in Interlingue are already long familiar to us. That is, the vocabulary in Interlingue is largely composed of already-existing international words, those that most countries in Europe (and of course countries in the Americas, in Australia, African countries with European languages, etc.) can already understand, and do not need to learn anew. These international words are, as we can see through these examples, used in an »unmutilated« form. But, — and this is what makes Interlingue unique — in the language they are not foreign loanwords, but entirely regularly composed and derived from international root words, that have been chosen in such a way that all these completely international and natural words come into being by themselves. This has never been achieved before in existing planned world languages.

The word-building system in Interlingue is in fact the same one that is found in international words, but as we will see later, can be easily learned and mastered with the help of a few rules.

But it’s not just the vocabulary of Interlingue that is natural and easy to learn; the grammar is also extremely easy thanks to its regularity.

1.2.1 Article

There is no grammatical gender in Interlingue. »Un« is the indefinite article (a/an), and does not decline (change form).

»Li« is the definite article (the), which also does not decline.

1.2.2 Singular and plural

Plural is formed with an -s, -es after a consonant. Some consonant endings such as »g«, »um«, »c« only add an -s for phonetic reasons.

1.2.3 Cases

For the definite article (the), a + li is abbreviated to »al« and de + il to »del«.

1.2.4 Adjectives

Adjectives in Interlingue do not decline for gender, number or case.

1.2.5 Persons

While verbs in English conjugate depending on the person and number, they do not in Interlingue.

2. Duesim letion

2.1 Textus

2.1.1 Un dialog

Un yun mann promena sur li trottuore de un strada e observa li vive. Il incontra un amíco, quel saluta le e strax comensa questionar:

Bon die, mi amíco. Quo Vu fa nu?

Yo promena.

Quo Vu ha fat hodie? Yo ne ha videt Vos ante nu.

Yo ha laborat.

Quo Vu fat yer?

Yo esset in hem e reposat.

Quo Vu hat fat anteyer, si Vu esset yer tam fatigat?

Yo hat laborat li tot die e nocte.

Quo Vu va far deman?

Yo va scrir un long articul por un jurnal, e yo espera, que yo va har scrit it til fine posdeman.

Mey Vu haver success in Vor interprense! Ma it vell esser interessant saver, pri quo Vu va scrir e por qui Vu va scrir.

Ci noi ne posse star plu. Noi deve ear.

Lass nos visitar un café! Ta noi posse seder e trincar un glass de bir e parlar. O si Vu vole, café o té. Ples venir con me!

Mersí pro Vor invitation! Ma ples pardonar: pro quo Vu vole saver quo yo fa, e pri quo e por qui yo scri?

Pro que un yun mann deve saver omnicos.

NOTE: »hodie« as a combination of ho- + die is stressed as »hodíe«, and »omnicos« as a combination of »omni« (all) + »cose« (thing) is stressed as »omnicós«. They may be also written as »hodie« and »omnicos«.

Vocabularium

2.1.2 Li furtard e li prestro

Un furtard veni a un prestro por confesser su mult peccas e reciver pardon e absolution. Li prestro sede in su stul e escuta benevolent, durant que li furtard raconta le pri su trics.

»Quo tu ha fat, mi filio?« questiona li prestro. – In li sam moment li furtard vide, que li prestro porta un fin aurin horloge in un tasca de su gilete. Il prende it sin que li prestro remarca to.

»Yo furte,« li furtard responde.

»Talmen tu ne deve dir. Ples dir, yo ha furtet!« – Nu li furtard ja ha deposit li horloge in su tasca.

»Yo ha furtet,« il confirma.

»Yes, bon, mi filio. Nu tu deve retornar to quo tu ha furtet.«

»Esque Vu ne vole haver it?«

»No, tu deve dar it al possessor.«

»Li possessor ne vole haver it.«

»In tal casu, ples departer in pace. Tui peccas es pardonat.«

Vocabularium

2.1.3 Anecdotes

Li persian legates postulat del Spartanes terra e aqua quam signe de subjugation. Li Spartanes jettat les in un profund bronn: »Ta vu have terra e aqua.«

Zeno, li filosofo, dit a un querellant yun mann: »Li natura ha dat nos du oreles e un bocca, por que noi mey escutar mult e parlar poc.«

»Si yo va venir a Laconia, yo va extinter omnicos e omnihom per foy e gladie,« scrit Philippos, li rey de Macedonia, al Spartanes. »Si,« respondet li Spartanes.

Un asiatic potentate esset questionat, quel esset su opinion pri li vin. Il respondet: »It es un fluide, quel es extraet de lingues de féminas e cordies de leones, pro que, quande yo ha trincat vin, yo posse parlar sin cessar e combatter mem li diábol.«

Vocabularium

2.1.4 Proverbies

Vocabularium

2.2 Explanations

2.2.1 Conjugation

Verbs in Interlingue are all regular (except for the verb »to be« (esser) which is written es in the present). There is only one conjugation with four forms. Taking the verbal stem ama- (love) as an example we have the following four forms: ama, amar, amant, amat.

1) Active present indicative (regular present form): yo ama = I love, il ama = he loves, vu ama = you love, etc.

2) Imperative: ama! = love!, veni! = come!

1) Perfect participle (i.e. an adjective): amat = loved, venit = come, presset = pressed. Li amat patria = the (be)loved homeland.

2) Active indicative preterite (i.e. past tense): yo amat = I loved, tu amat = you loved, il amat = he loved, noi amat = we loved, ili amat su patria = they loved their homeland, etc.

The other forms are created with the help of auxiliary verbs.

(Active)

»Har« resembles »haver« (to have) but is used for verb conjugation, while haver only refers to the verb »to have«:

»Ples« in »ples amar« adds politeness to the imperative, in the same way as the English »please«:

(Passive)

Other forms:

Using the verb »ear« (to go) adds a sense of continuation (the construction is going on):

Using the verb »star« (to stand) adds a sense of finality (the construction »stands« built):

Using »se« after a verb to make it passive or reflexive (to make it refer to itself):

Adding »se« to a verb may also give a sense similar to that in English:

The second example can be thought of as a short form of »Il procurat por se un libre« or »Il procurat un libre por se«.

The same goes for other pronouns such as me:

Progressive form:

The progressive form is used much less often than in English, and is used to stress the fact that the action is ongoing.

It works as an adjective in the same way as in English:

3. Triesim letion

3.1 Textus

3.1.1 Li creation

In li Bible sta scrit, que Deo ha *creat* li munde.

Pro to il es nominat li *creator* del munde.

Li *creation* durat six dies.

Noi ne have *creatori* qualitás, solmen Deo es vermen *creativ*.

Quo il ha creat? Nos e omni altri *creaturas*.

Vocabularium

3.1.2 Un brilliant carriera

Mi fratre have un amíco, un ingeniero, qui ha fat un brilliant carriera. Ja quam yun studente su aspirationes evocat atention. Pos obligatori teoretic studies in un tecnical institute e practic preparatori labores in un micri fabrica, in quel il laborat quam reparator de electric motores e transformatores, il recivet un transitori ocupation quam supervisor del machines in un grand industrial interprense. Mersí a su intensiv labor e su extraordinari organisatori talentes il avansat gradualmen, de position a position, e nu il es executiv director de un association de industries in li sam branche.

Su precessores esset in oposition a innovationes, ma quam successor de ti conservativ administratores il devet interprender mult reformationes e un total reorganisation del administration. Li production e vendition del productes e fabricates crescet enorm in comparation a to, quo ili esset ante il. Il ha prendet parte in mult negociationes con extran states, e li resultate ha esset plu e plu extensiv, comercial transactiones de exportationes e concessiones in exotic landes.

Difamatori lingues di, que il es un poc imperatori, ma to es exageration. Quande il ha decidet un afere, il es firm in su decision, ne tolera contradition e intervention, e pro to il have success in su interprenses. Tal qualificationes es anc absolutmen necessi e decisiv por un mann in su position.

Il es inventor de mult patentat aparates, queles es ancor in su exclusiv possession. Quam possessor de grand capitales, il ha fat mult donationes in favor a cultural institutiones, e pro to il have li reputation de un grand donator e favorisator del scienties e artes.

Vocabularium

3.1.3 Li eterni problemas

It existe témpores, quande li filosofic speculation sembla haltar in total o partial resignation ante li grand problemas del vive, quande ne solmen definitiv ma anc provisori responses al eterni questiones sembla van. It concentra se a examination e inregistration de ti resultates, queles li exploratores e laboratores del special scienties presenta. It es periodes, quande li homan pensa fa quasi un sorte de guerre de position contra li eterni problemas, un guerre de position, quel postula mult devot perlaboration de detallies e penetrativ analise.

Ma it existe anc témpores, quande li pensa abandona su timid, defensiv position, marcha adavan e fa un general atacca. It es tal témpores, pri queles Hegel ha dit, que »li universal spíritu fa un choc adavan.« Con egal justification on posse nominar les témpores de productiv erras. Tal periodes seque successiv un pos altri, in ritmic fluctuation quam sómmites e valleyes de undes.

Pos li potent flut del Renascentie, quel in fin manifestat se in li grand sistemas, sequet li rationalisme del enciclopedistes e lor imitatores. Ti rationalisme havet su culmination e su coronation, ma anc su contra-evolution in Kant, li titane del filosofie. Pos il sequet li romantica, con nov gigantic constructiones de sistemas.

E denove, pos li romantica, li filosofie devet retirar a su positiones. Li positivisme detronat li filosofie in favor al special scienties. Li materialisme devenit li successor de ti sublim, genuin idealistic spíritu, quel, malgré omni fantastic misprenses, esset li directiv factor del romantica. Li special scienties fa nov e nov decovritiones, ma nor spiritual horizonte deveni plu strett.

E nu, esque li signes de nor propri témpore ne da nos indicationes pri un nov era de filosofic speculation, un nov romantica e idealisme, támen con plu critic reflection quam li antiqui? Li munde fórsan ne es ancor tam senil, quam li profetes de fatiga vole far nos creder.

Vocabularium

NOTE: »omni« before a singular means »each« (same as »chascun«), while before a plural it means »all«.

3.1.4 Anecdotes

On questionat li filosof Aristippos de Kyrene, per quo li filosofos distinte se del altri homes. Il respondet: »Si omni leges vell esser abrogat, solmen li filosofos vell viver quam antey.«

Alquí objectet que on frequent incontra li filosofos avan li portas del riches. Aristippos replicat: »Sam quam li medicos avan li portas del malades. Esque pro to li malades es plu reputat quam li medicos?«

»Moné,« il declarat, »yo prende del riches ne pro que yo besona it, ma por que ili mey saver in quel maniere ili posse investir it.«

Vocabularium

3.2 Explanations

3.2.1 Suffixes -ion, -or, -ori, -iv, -ura

We have just seen a large number of expressive international words that end with these five suffixes. Note that these words in Interlingue are regularly derived from verbs.

The words with -ion, -or, -ori, -iv and -ura are created with the perfect stem of the verb. But dictionaries only give the infinitive of a verb. How do you find the perfect stem? This is where we come to the de Wahl’s Rule.

3.2.2 The de Wahl’s Rule

First remove the -r from a verb, or -er for an -er verb. What is at the end?

1) If it’s a vowel, then add a »t«:

2) If it’s a »d« or an »r«, then it becomes »s«:

3) If it’s a consonant, then you already have the perfect stem.

NOTE:

Five verbs are exceptions to the above and must be learned separately.

NOTE:

The original de Wahl’s Rule included the exception »mover« (to move) → mot-, from which is derived »motion«. The Interlingue community noted however that »motion« (plus »emotion«) and »movement« are semantically different and that using two verbs »moer« (to move, to budge) and »mover« (to move) would allow greater precision while doing away with an irregularity. Thus, the word »motion« is regularly derived from »mo/er« → mot- → »motion«.

3.2.3 Meaning of the suffixes

-ion

The action, result or location of a verb.

-or

The acting person, thing or factor of a verb.

-ori

Adjective derived from -or above, similar to English -ory. Refers to something that is dedicated to or working as:

-iv

English -ive, forms adjectives that denote an active ability:

-ura

Similar to English -ure. Forms verbal nouns denoting a concrete, realized action or its result.

The perfect stem plus an -e (to indicate a noun) is also used to form the result of the action of a verb:

The -e is technically optional but is used for clarity; it may be removed for euphonic purposes (usage in poetry, to translate colloquial or informal speech, etc.).

The perfect stem on its own is also used as an adjective:

NOTE:

4. Quadresim letion

4.1 Textus

4.1.1 Li misterie del cratere in Sall

In fine del septembre mill nin cent duant sett (1927) li conosset geofisico Professor Wegener (de Graz in Austria) visitat un ja de long conosset, ma per su orígine absolutmen misteriosi cratere in Sall sur li insul Oesel (Saaremaa), quel apartene al Republica de Estonia. Il esset in un societé de professores Kraus e Meyer del universitá in Riga e fat explorationes pri ti fenomen del natura.

In to omni expertes esset unanim til nu, que ci ne acte se pri un extint vulcan, quam on pensa in circules de laicos. Li max probabil opinion esset ti, que li cratere es un funel de ruition. Nu professor Wegener expresset un nov surprisant interpretation del orígine de ti strangi formation. Il pensa que on have ci un funel de penetration de un grandissim meteorite, simil al funeles de grenades, queles noi conosse desde li guerre mundan. Li cratere de Sall have un diametre de du cent quinant (250) e un profundore de deciquin (15) metres. It sembla esser un diminuet simil formation quam li famosi Arizona-crater in Nord America, quel advere have du mill (2000) metres in diametre.

Ma quo es significativ – per forationes on ja ha constatat in quar cent (400) metres sub li solea del cratere un enorm meteorite de circa mill du cent (1200) metres in diametre, it es, un córpore de dimensiones de un micri satellite. Wegener aprecia li grandore del meteorite, quel ha productet li cratere de Sall, ye circa cent til cent quinant (100 til 150) metres in diametre, e suposi que it deve trovar se in circa quinant til settant quin (50 til 75) metres de profundore. Adplu it es remarcabil, que in li vicinitá del principal cratere es situat pluri simil, ma mult plu micri, funeles, probabilmen causat per partes, queles ha separat se durant li cadida, quo es sovente observat che li cadidas de meteorites.

Si li suposition de prof. Wegener es rect, tande li cratere in Sall es un unic monument de natura in Europa, e li duesim sur li tot globe de terra.

Vocabularium

4.1.2 Li numerales

Li cardinal numerales, queles responde al question »quant?« es:

Per adjuntion del suffix -esim noi have li ordinal numerales, respondent al question »quantesim?«:

NOTE:

Per adjuntion del sufix -plic (-uplic pos consonantes) (del verbe »plicar«) noi recive li »multiplicativ« numerales, queles responde al question »quantuplic?«:

NOTE:

Existe anc colectiv numerales, queles expresse un colection o un aproximativ númere:

NOTE:

Li fractiones es:

De 1/5 li fractiones es simil al ordinales.

Vocabularium

4.1.3 Li témpore e su division

Quel hora es? Quel es li témpore?[5]

Li sett dies del semane es: soledí, lunedí, mardí, mercurdí, jovedí, venerdí, saturdí.

Li decidu mensus es: januar, februar, marte, april, may, junio, julí, august, septembre, octobre, novembre e decembre.

NOTE:

Triant dies hav’ septembre,
April, junio, novembre,
Triant un have altris tot,
Februar sol have duant ott;
Except in annus intercalar
Duant nin have februar.

In li verne plantes cresce in li renascet natura.
In estive flores vive e li dies es calid.
In autune flores mori e li fructes es matur.
In hiverne veni nive e li dies es frigid.

Vocabularium

4.1.4 Aforismes

In null altri ocasion on menti tant quam pos un chasse, durant un guerre e ante un election.
—Bismarck

Si li veritá vell esser dat me con li condition, que yo deve celar it in me e ne dar it de me – yo vell refusar it.
—Seneca

It es just egal, si on interprende liberar homes queles have null firm conceptiones ex lor erras, quam si on vole expussar un vagabunde qui have null firm dom ex su hem.
—Locke

Quo noi nómina accidentie, es li asil del ignorantie.
—Spinoza

Vocabularium

4.2 Explanations

Knowing how to derive words with prefixes and suffixes is of great importance in the understanding of international words, because being able to do this allows you to form a large number of internationally-understood words on your own from a single root. None of the prefixes or suffixes in Interlingue, seemingly so large in number, were created from scratch, but already exist in many internationally known foreign words. The difference in that in Interlingue they are not simply imported loanwords, and have been given a more precise sense and have been made for more general and meaningful use.

Let’s take the root »centre« as an example (centre in English as well). From this word we already recognize words derived from it: central, centrale, centralisme, centralisar, centralisation, centralisator, decentralisar, decentralisation, concentrar, concentration, excentre, excentric, excentricitá, subcentral, etc. By learning Interlingue’s derivation one gains an understanding for how they are made up.

We are now going to look at prepositions, which in Interlingue are not simply standalone particles but also used to form words.

4.2.1 Prepositions

Let’s take a look at a few from all of these.

a

»To«. Has many uses:

ante

Means »before« in terms of time and place (»avan« only refers to place).

avan

Means »before« in terms of place (»ante« refers also to time).

caus

»Because of«. The reason for something goes right after »caus«, which is an abbreviation of the longer »in cause de«.

con

»With«.

NOTE:

de

»De« has a wide usage, and oftentimes other prepositions can be used in its place.

desde

»Since«, »for«.

ex

»Out (of)«, »from«.

per

»By«, »through«, »with«

por

pri

til

tra

trans

vers

Words formed by prepositions

These prepositions are also used to form other words.

4.2.2 Prefixes

The following prefixes are only used in compound words.

bel-

Related by marriage.

des-

(Usually de- before consonants.)

Before nouns: nullation or opposing meaning, un-:

On verbs: loss of something:

dis-

Separation, moving away:

ín-

Opposite meaning (in-, un-, etc.):

NOTE:

mis-

»Wrong«, »improper«, mis-:

pre-

»Before«, pre-:

pro-

»Ahead«, »forth«

re-

»Again«, re-:

4.2.3 Which form to use?

When Occidental was first announced in 1922, Edgar de Wahl proposed a number of standalone and derived words that he believed to be equally valid, leaving the decision between them to the community to see which form it preferred. This process of ironing out took place over the next 25 years, at a very gradual pace as all changes in the end were very minor. Some examples of theoretically equally valid forms are the following:

The form on the left was rarely if ever used, due to 1) the uninternational appearance and 2) the possibility of appearing to have a different meaning. »Subposition« for example simply looks like »under position« and does not give the sense of »supposition«.

The second form was used for a time, but eventually the community settled on the form on the right for simplicity, with doubled consonants used in the cases mentioned in the beginning of the book (»ss« to maintain the [s] sound in all cases, »ch« for [sh], etc.).

5. Quinesim letion

5.1 Textus

5.1.1 Regress e progress

Etsi it sempre ne es litteralmen ver que it custa torrentes de sangue por pussar li homanité in moventie un millimetre adavan, it támen es ínnegabil e pruvat del experientie, que íncredibil mult eforties es necessi por far li homanité comprender un nov idé, benque it vell aportar it grand avantages. It existe tro mult homes, queles relate con índiferentie e indolentie a lu nov, o monstra admaxim un platonic benevolentie, e anc tales, queles combatte it con apert íntolerantie e mem acumula barrieres e impedimentes por desfacilisar li progress del cultur. In consequentie de lor ignorantie ili quasi time líber pensada e li aparentie de nov idés, e ili da preferentie solmen a to, quo sta in acordantie a lor propri restrictet saventies. Qual perseverantie de su pioneros ha postulat e va postular li movement por un lingue international, qual persistentie in li confidentie e esperantie al final victorie del nobil idé!

Omni progress es li resultate de un tenaci luctada ínter du tendenties: un, quel crede in li permanentie de lu existent e insiste in li conservation de it, e un altri, quel crede in li existentie de alquicos plu bon. Fórsan con un cert exageration on nómina li unesimes frenatores e reactionarios, li duesimes fantasistes e utopistes. Li fundamental diferentie ínter li du partises es proprimen to, que li regressistes ne conosse li essentie del nov idés e pro to ne posse apreciar lor valore e importantie, durant que li progressistes es tro inclinat depreciar li existentie del conservativ leges del realitá e li potentie del temporari circumstanties. On vell posser nominar ti du partises realistes e idealistes, de to ne vell esser alquant ínjust, nam anc li realistes have su ideales, e anc li idealistes calcula con un realitá, quel posse fórsan esser plu ver quam li evident.

Un filosof unquande ha expresset li sam pensa per ti paroles: »Li munde sempre ha ridet pri to quo plu tard ha verificat se. In omni témpores existe homes qui pensa, e homes qui ride. Quande li témpore ha passat e un nov intrat – it ha sempre esset talmen, ne existe exceptiones – tande li munde ha regardat a retro e erectet monumentes a tis qui pensat, e ridet pri tis qui ridet.«

Vocabularium

5.1.2 Economisation

Si noi vole economisar moné, noi deve deposir it e ne spoliar it in omnidial micri expenses. Ma si noi vole economisar témpore, nor hores e minutes, noi deve utilisar les, e plu exclusivmen ili es usat por digni scopes, plu ili es transformat in un capitale de caractere, intelligentie e potentie. Noi cresce ne in aritmetic, ma in geometric progression, li flut de nov vive ne es solmen addit, ma multiplicat per lu antean. Un nov pensa, quel on excisela, ne es solmen juntet al anteyan pensas, ma transforma les e multiplica les, da nos nov vispunctus, de queles noi vide omni relationes e idés in un altri perspective.

Un passu ancor ad-supra li monte fa li horizonte plu vast in omni directiones.

—Channing

Vocabularium

5.1.3 Li division de labor

Noi ha studiat mult e perfectionat mult, durant li ultim témpore, concernent li grand invention del civilisation: li division de labor. Solmen noi da it un fals nómine. It ne es, si noi expresse li veritá, li labor, quel es dividet, ma li homes: dividet in segmentes de homes, ruptet in micri fragmentes e pezzes de vive, talmen que li micri parte del intelligentie, quel resta in un hom, ne es suficent por far un pivote o un clove, ma exhauste se per far li fine de un pivote o li cap de un clove. E li grand cri, quel eleva se ex nor industrial cités, plu sonori quam lor sofflada de fornes – omnicos deriva de to, que noi fabrica omnicos in ili, except homes. Noi inpallida coton, e indura stal, e raffina sucre e modella ceramica, ma clarar, indurar, rafinar o modellar un singul vivent anim, tó nequande trova se in nor calculationes de profite.

—Ruskin

NOTE:

Vocabularium

5.1.4 Sofistica

Un yun greco hat aprendet de Protágoras li arte de sofistes contra payament de 50 mines ínmediatmen e ulterior 50 mines, quande il hat victet in su unesim processu. Proque il tardat payar li ultim parte, Protágoras comensat processu contra il. In ti die, in quel li judicament evenit, li du parties incontrat ante li deliberationes del judicos.

»It es plu bon, que tu paya me nu,« dit li mastro, »nam si yo victe, tu va esser judicat a payar, e si tu victe, tande tu ya ha victet in unesim processu, e va dever payar me anc in ti casu.«

»No, ples atender un poc,« replicat li yun mann, »si tu victe, tande yo ne ha victet in unesim processu, e tande, comprensibilmen, yo ne deve payar te e si yo victe, tande li judicament ya va esser tal, que yo ne deve payar.«

Vocabularium

5.1.5 Li max perfect lingue

Un lingue, aprioric e logic, in quel chascun parol vell esser solmen un signe de un sol fix notion, un lingue sin images e metáfores e sin alcun associationes de idés, queles nequande vell lurar li pensa a altri notiones, un tal lingue vell esser perfectissim, pur principiarimen, pur teoricmen. Li paroles vell esser solmen instrumentes del pensa e necos plu.

Ma, it es un fact, noi nequande vell posser aprender un tal lingue. To es, si noi ne presuposi, que li vocabularium deve esser micrissim possibil. Ma tande it ne vell esser possibil expresser to, quo un civilisat nation, mem li micrissim popul, posse expresser per su lingue. Li homan memorie besona firm punctus por adherer, ma sur li calv, glacie-polit superficie del logic notiones it ne posse retener se. Just caus lor ínperfectitás e ruditás li natural lingues da nos plu secur adhesion por li memorie.

Li amore al metáfores es tam inradicat in nor mentes, que, etsi noi vell posser dispensar li metáfores, noi támen ne vell voler it. In omni lingues, nov e antiqui, on posse constatar li fenomen, que simplic, descolorat nómines es viceat per paroles, queles per su images e associationes de idés es quasi plu vivent, plu interessant. E noi posse profetisar, que tam long quam nor homanité ne ha perdit se ancor in pur ration, tam long quam sentiment e imagination ancor lude un rol, tam long quam homes ama li flores del verne ne solmen li sicc folies del autune – tam long un lingue aprioric, sin historie e sin metáfores ne va esser parlat sur ti-ci globe.

Vocabularium

5.1.6 Proverbies

Honestie es li max bon politica.

Exemples es plu bon quam prescrites.

Laude fa bon homes plu bon, e mal homes plu mal.

Fortuna favora li braves.

Li oldes save, quo li yunes ne conosse, ma li yunes aprende, quo li oldes ne posse.

Li bravo merite li bella.

De lu sublim a lu comic es sovente solmen un passu.

Leges es quam li texturas del aranés; li micri moscas es captet, li grandes trapassa.

Vocabularium

5.1.7 Li historie

Per li studia del historie noi percepte li intim conexion, quel existe ínter lu present e lu passat. Li present moment es un transient cose, su radicas es in lu passat, su esperas in lu futuri. Si omnicos vell depender del subtil fil del fugient moment, quel ilumina e dura solmen durant un move del ocul, solmen por evanescer in li abiss de Nihil, tande omni vive vell significar solmen un exeada ad in li morte. Noi es tro inclinat regardar lu passat quam alquicos mort, ma it existe ye vivent evidentie in nor animas hodie. It opresse nos e stimula nos al action, it tirannisa nos e inspira nos a coses plu sublim.

Vocabularium

5.1.8 Aforismes

Li historie demonstra, que un energie e scop-conscient labor finalmen triumfa, ne pro que grand masses de homes auxilia realisar alcun cose, ma sovente pro que li iniciatores sin repose acte por li idé.
—O. Fehlmann

Sovente it es plu desfacil viver por un idé quam morir por it. To es li diferentie ínter heróes e martiros.
—O. Wilde

Du levul gantes ne fa un pare de gantes, du demí veritás ne fa un veritá.
—Multatuli

Vocabularium

5.2 Explanations

5.2.1 Word endings

Endings for types of words such as nouns, adjectives and the like are no more obligatory in Interlingue than in natural languages. Vowels at the end of words are mainly justified by ease of pronunciation. Internationally-known words found in many languages are just as diverse in Interlingue as in other languages. Some of them are: »firma« (company), »boa«, »auto«, »conto« (account), »cangurú« (kangaroo), »marabú« (a type of tree), »tabú«, »colibrí« (hummingbird), »lampe«, »idé« (idea), etc. Nouns, adjectives and particles can end in any vowel or consonant, as long as the word can be clearly spoken.

-e

A very common end vowel in Interlingue is -e, which does not have any particular meaning, but is used for ease of pronunciation and to distinguish words from others. Nouns: »teatre«, »centre«, »lampe«. Adjectives: »pie« (pious), »varie« (varied). An adverb: »sovente« (often). The -e is also seen in plurals after a consonant before the -s: »nation«, »nationes«. It can also play a role in distinguishing a noun from an adjective: »central« (central), »centrale« (headquarters).

-i

The most common adjectival ending is -i, which is also used for pronunciation and distinguishing types of words:

-o, -a

For nouns referring to living creatures, the ending -o is used to indicate the male gender, and -a the female, when necessary. (Genderless or unspecified: -e or no ending):

In many other words the -o ending is used for a specific item, while -a refers to something in a more collective sense, a location or time. »rosiero« = rose bush, »rosiera« = rose garden, »barbería« = barbershop, »auditoria« = auditorium, »imperia« = empire, etc.

Substantival (noun) adjectives may be used as nouns:

The same endings can be used on adjectives to indicate the gender:

The ending can also be used on the definite article itself if there is no particular noun in mind:

NOTE:

-um

Finally, the ending -um can be used on an adjective to form a noun that expresses the general idea of something:

5.2.2 Comparative forms

Comparative (more, less) and superlative (most, least) adjectives are formed in the following way:

The above are the regular comparative forms. Other less regular forms exist due to their being part of already existing international words:

NOTE:

5.2.3 Divers suffixes

-ett

The usual diminutive (making smaller) suffix is -ett:

The same suffix is used to indicate small tools or instruments. Example: »inflammette« = match (from »flamme«, flame), »tenette« = grip, »hilt« (on a sword, from »tener«, to hold)

-ach

The usual suffix to make something pejorative is -ach:

Many other expressions can be pejorative on their own: »simiar« also means to ape (»simie« = monkey, ape).

-ar

Verbs are usually formed with the -ar suffix, the most commonly used for immediate derivation.

As the last examples show, adjectives are frequently made into verbs along with a preposition in front.

The present participle can also be made into verbs:

-isar

»To make thus«, »to make as«, similar to English:

NOTE:

-isar can also be used, though more rarely, with nouns. They form words you already know:

-ificar

»To make into something«, »to bring towards« — similar to -isar above but slightly different.

-ijar

»To become«. The word itself to become is »devenir«, and -ijar is an alternate way of expressing the idea.

-ear

This suffix forms verbs that indicate a swinging or repeating motion, or an intense state of being.

5.2.4 Suffixes for verbal nouns

The verbal stem (present tense) can also be used as a verbal noun, which refers to a simple action.

NOTE:

The word »pense« refers to »a thought«, while »pensa« refers to »thought«. Both are correct, and have a subtle difference:

This is, again, a subtle distinction that one may use if wished or ignore at will, like the English words »clothing« and »clothes«, »dinner« and »supper«, »precise« and »accurate«, »venom« and »poison«, etc.)

We have already gone over the suffixes -ion and -ura in chapter 3. Here are some others:

-ada, -ida

-ar verbs use the -ada suffix, -er and -ir verbs the -ida suffix. It refers to the activity of a verb in its duration.

-ntie

More or less equivalent to the English -nce (designates a condition in its duration), this is formed from the -nt participle plus -ie.

-ment

(This suffix requires some special attention, as their international use is more limited than the way they are used in English and in French which uses -ment with great frequency.)

Forms nouns that signify a special, concrete action or its outcome or the means for it.

Some other examples Edgar de Wahl mentioned in Cosmoglotta[7]:

-age

1. The activity of a verb, mainly industrial or professional, its expenses, etc.:

2. Collections with order, things made by:

6. Sixesim letion

6.1 Textus

6.1.1 Li festivitás ye li ocasion del ottcentenarie del cité capital

Ja ante ott horas in li matin li publica comensat barrar li stradas ductent al grand plazza de parade, talmen que li policistes havet mult a far por retener it in respectabil distantie. Legionarios e pumperos esset comandat quam auxiliatores por li policie.

Ja on posset vider un policist, forductent un laceron e un fripon, quel esset arrestat quam furtard. Un trincard esset remarcat de un policist, al gaudie de un galoppon de hotel. Un dormion presc restat sub un automobil.

In li sud-front del plazza esset constructet tribunes por li special invitat publica. On videt functionarios de diversi institutiones, publicistes e jurnalistes e anc cinematistes. Ye nin horas e tri quart li central tribune comensat plenar se. Ultra li presidente e su marita, nascet princessa D. con su can Bolognes, li comissario de policie, li magistrate municipal, li borgomastro Ciennes on videt mult altri distint persones. In li diplomatic loge prendet plazze li ambassadores anglesi, francesi, german, chinesi, japanesi, con lor damas, ínter ili li marita del ambassador italian, li conosset patronessa del societé de protectores de infantes. Ínter li deputates del parlament on remarcat omni fractiones comensante del max revolutionari bolshevistes, til li conosset reactionario M., actionario e companion del chef del Grand Magazin Central, e anc quelc pastores del partise Christian.

Presc precis ye deci horas comensat li grand parade militari con elegant cavalcada del cavalleristes, ínter queles excellet li lanseros. Li chasseros con lor coloristic vestes evocat general sensation. Poy defilat li artilleristes con lor modernissim mortatori apparates. Ínter li infanteristes marchat max von li musqueteros, flancat per li jaloneros. Li officeros portat su órdenes, e on posset remarcar, que li pedones esset plu decorat quam li truppes de ingenieros.

Pos li militares defilat li brigade de pumperos e depoy sequet li scoleros de diversi institutes con lor directores, preceptores e instructores. Pos ili marchat li professionales: tallieros, chapeleros, sapateros, barberos, carreteros, carpenteros, mureros, vitreros, ferreros etc. Li ovreros del fabricas ne prendet parte in ti parade, ma li mineros del vicin carbon-miniera esset representat per lor delegates in su original costumes.

Nu sequet li sportiv organisationes e on posset vider mult conosset championes del futballistes, boxeros, velocipedistes, canotistes etc. In fin sequet un curse de automobilistes e motoristes.

In li véspere in li vast sala municipal esset arangeat un grand festa, u incontrat se li tot population per su eminent laboratores scientific, politic, artistic e social. Ínter li scientistes on posset reconnosser li professores del universitá, li romanist E., li germanist F., e li orientalist M. Omni scienties esset representat, on videt juristes, medicos, ínter ili li oculist S., li internist A. e li dentist U. Anc conosset pictores quam li paisagist L., li portretist R. e li aquarellist e aquafortist K. participat al festa. Ta esset anc li sculptor C. con su marita, li famosi actressa Lola C. On vide li max diferent persones in amical conversation: ci un radical socialist fonde se sub li ardent ocules del excentric baronessa S., ta un prestro del metodistes parla con li millionario e bankero M. e li proprietario del grand fabrica de motores, lord Ch. Li charitabil comtessa T. sembla interessar se ye li activitá del conosset calvinistic missionario B., un alt barbon, quel in ti desbarbat témpore es quasi un anacronisme.

Li babillada cessat quande li trio: li pianisto Z., li cellisto Str. e li violinista Senioretta Ilona M. intonat un arie del local compositor G. Solmen in tard nocte li festa trovat su fine, talmen que li reporteros havet mult a far por scrir li rapportes al rect témpore, e li redactores e correctores esset occupat til li límite. Criticastros comprensibilmen ne esset content.

Vocabularium

6.1.2 Un farme in li subtropic landes

Li farmero amabilmen monstrat nos su possessiones. Sur li corte noi videt a dextri un grand dom. To esset li gallinería, u esset anc anates, ganses e quelc altri avies. Detra ti voliera extendet se un pisciera quel servit solmen quam anguilliera. Trans li bassines esset visibil li grand cafeiera e in lontan un piniera. In li horizonte stat blu montes, u esset un rich marmoriera, un ardesiera e altri minieras. Li sómmites esset covrit de nive e glacieros. Del altri látere del corte esset li orangería con mult tropic plantes e fructieros, bananieros, palmes e exotic flores. Noi eat sur un bell planat via, de un látere de quel extendet se un vast herbiera con bellissim trifolie e anc mult bell flores de camp, queles injoyat li paisage. Ma li farmero totmen ne esset content con ti malherbe, quam il nominat les. Il haltat e prendet ex li tasca un tabaciere e presentat nos quelc cigares: »Vu ne posse imaginar Vos,« dit il, »quant me despita li insectes! Vu vide ta li pomiera juntet a mi parc. It es presc vivid pro li mult vermes, con queles yo guerrea nu ja quelc annus. Anc li verdi pedicules de folies in mi adjacent pruniera, malgré omni precautiones, expande se in un horribil maniere.«

»Esque Vu have fórsan formícas?«

»O yes. Ci es pluri formicieras in li boscage vicin. Ili es tre laborosi insectes. Ples notar que just li formícas cultiva li pedicules, e yo posse solmen consiliar Vos tam rapid quam possibil exterminar omni formicieras. Ili es tre nociv animales in un fructiera.«

»Advere! Nu yo va sequer Vor consilie. Ples regardar tra ti clariera, quel aperte nos li vide súper li mare. Ta Vu posse vider un cannoniere e du destructores, queles crucea in ti regiones.«

»Quel es ti nave, quel sub segles veni al portu?«

»To es nor seglero, quel aporta nos salpetre por amelioration del terre. It veni del famos nitrieras in Chile.«

Pos har fat un promenada tra li principal branches de su proprietás, li farmero invitat nos in su »garsoniera,« quam il nominat su hem nu, proque su marita esset in un sanatoria. Quande noi hat sedentat nos in li comod apoyieres, sub li grand castaniero, un servitor aportat sur un tablette un chinesi teiere con tasses. Pos har trincat té e restaurat nos un poc, noi eat regardar li industrial institutiones, li spritería, li lavería, sapatería, carpentería e ferrería, u on fat omni ferrin ovres til li max fin ferreríes ornamental. Specialmen simpatic esset to, que on totmen ne videt forjettat ferrallia, quel talmen desgustant abunda in altri tal ovrerías. Li old forjero con su long albi barbe stat apu li incude avan li foyiere con ardent brase illuminant su energic facie, un image del old témpore.

6.2 Explanations

6.2.1 Personal suffixes

The following suffixes create nouns that refer to persons.

-er-

(From nouns.) Similar to -er in English, refers to a person who is engaged in a type of work, or more rarely someone who coincidentally is engaged in a task.

-ist

(From nouns.) The follower of an -ism, or someone engaged in some sort of artistic, ideal, scientific, military, technical or sport-related occupation:

-or

(Formed from verbs.) Explained in lesson 3, a simple doer of an action. Note the following:

-ario

A person that is characterized through something exterior, such as a career:

-on

A person characterized by an inner or natural character:

-on also serves as a suffix for objects, often implying a greater size:

-ard

A person with a negative or criminal quality:

-astro

Someone unskilled at his or her profession:

-es-

Resident of a place or someone who originates from it (also as an adjective):

-essa

Suffix for females indicating an office or dignified position:

Note that -or drops the »o« in this suffix.

6.2.2 Qualitative suffixes

The following suffixes form many of the nouns referring to the states and properties of other words.

-ie

An abstract state:

Derivations from participles are particularly numerous:

It may be used on nouns as well to make them abstract:

-tá, -té

Quality or character, more or less equivalent to English -ty[8]:

Words that refer to a group of people or things use -té instead of -tá:

-tá or -té?

Besides the above, -té is much more limited in scope and any doubtful cases are given the -tá ending, such as »universitá« (university), which is neither the character of being a universe (universe + tá) nor a collection of universes (universe + té). In the same way, society (societá) is not simply the state of being a socio, but it is also not a collection of them (a society is not simply a collection of associates) and thus it becomes »societá«. Rule of thumb: when in doubt, it’s probably -tá.

-ore

1. (from verbs): a state of feeling, activity, temperature, etc.

2. (from adjectives): size, value:

-esse

Special property or condition, most similar to English -ness. Examples:

This is also the suffix used for bombastic titles such as »your Highness« (Vor Altesse).

6.2.3 Local and collective suffixes

-ia

A frequent suffix for the names of places and countries:

-atu

A legal, social, or public institution, state, or office (also location, time, and territory). Often corresponds to English -at or -iat:

-eríe

An occupation and its activities. As -ería, it refers to the actual location. Both are actually formed from the -er« suffix (doer of an action), then -ie as above for the quality, or -ia for the location.

Beyond the occupation, it also refers to a character trait and its manifestations, same as in English -ery:

-iera, -iere, -iero

These three are best learned together.

-iere words:

-iero words:

-iera words:

-uore

A place or device where something is done:

-ade

A consecutive, ordered series or certain amount of something:

-allia

An unordered or pile of something:

-arium

A more scientific or specialized grouping of something.

7. Settesim letion

7.1 Textus

7.1.1 Li intern veritá

To quo, secun li opinion de frances e angles letores, distinte Goethe, es un qualitá, quel il divide con su nation – constant referentie a intern veritá. In Anglia e America existe reverentie por talent, e li publica es satisfat, si li talent es exercit pro un cert fixat o comprensibil interesse o partie, o in regulari oposition contra un de tales. In Francia existe un plu grand delicie por intellectual brilliantie, pro it self. E in omni ti landes talentat homes scri talentosimen. It es suficent, si li intercomprension es ganiat, li contact atinger, tant columnes, tant hores ocupat in un vivaci e honorabil maniere. Al german intellectu manca li frances brilliantie, li fin practical comprension del angleses, e li american aventura; ma it have un cert honestie, quel nequande resta in superficial performantie, ma questiona constant: pro quel scope? Un german publica demanda controlant sinceritá. »Ci es un activitá de pensada – ma por quo? Quo vole li mann? De u, de u omni ti pensas?«

Sol talent ne posse far un autor. It es necessi que existe un mann detra li libre, un personalitá qui per su orígine e su qualitá da garantie a ti doctrines queles il exposi, e qui existe por vider e constatar li coses in ti e ne in un altri maniere, qui defende factes proque ili es factes. Si il ne posse expresser se corect hodie, li sam coses supervive e va explicar se deman. Un charge jace sur su mente, li charge de un veritá explicand – plu o minu comprendet, e it constitue su ocupation e su vocation in li munde soluer li problemas e far les conosset. Quo importa que il mistrotta e balbutia, que su voce es crud e mis-sonant, que su metodes e su tropes es ínadequat? Ti mission va trovar metode e images, articulation e melodie. Etsi il vell esser mut, it vell parlar. Si ne – si ne vell exister un tal divin parol che li mann – quo noi cuida, quam fluent, quam brilliant il es…

—Emerson

Vocabularium

NOTE:

7.1.2 Aforismes

Si li triangules vell posser pensar, ili vell imaginar su Deo quam triangulari.
—Spinoza

Li capes de grand homes diminue, si plures de ili conveni; plu mult li sagies, plu minimal li sagesse.
—Montesquieu

Moventie, progresse, esperantie, vive, omnis es solmen sinonimes de optimisme. Li antiqui romano qui pensat li proverbie: durant que yo spira, yo espera, ha concentrat li filosofie del processe del vive, e dat a un biologic fundamental veritá li forme de un classic calambure.
—Nordau

Li damas ne veni in li ciel, nam ja in li Apocalipse es dit in un loc: It esset silent durant un demí seconde. To ne es pensabil ta, u damas es present.
—Kant

Vocabularium

7.1.3 Li evangelie del labor

It existe du folles in li munde. Li un es li millionario, qui crede, que il posse acumular real potentie per collecter moné; li altri es li glatt-rasat agitator, qui crede, que si il solmen vell posser prender li moné de un classe e dar it a un altri, li social maladies vell esser curat. Ili es ambi sur fals via. Mani del max successosi ho-temporan collectores de moné ne ha augmentat, ni per minimalissim summa, li richesse del homanité. Esque cart-luderos contribue al augmentation del richess del munde?

Si noi omni vell partiprender in li productiv labor, intra li límites de nor capacitá, on vell posser questionar solmen pri to, esque chascun va reciver to quo il besona. Un real manca del vital necessitás – ne un fals manca pro absentie de tintinant metallic monetes in nor tascas – posse depender solmen de ínsuficent production, e ti es, in su órdine, tro sovente un consequentie de mancant saventies pri to quo e qualmen on deve producter.

Ja in comensa noi deve fixar quam facte: li terra es capabil producter decent vive a chascun; ne solmen nutrition ma omnicos quo noi besona; nam omnicos veni del terra. It es possibil arangear li labor, li production, li distribution e li recompensation talmen, que a chascun qui fa su deventie, es garantit un parte del resultate in conformitá al exact justicie.

Omnicos es possibil. Crede es li substantie de coses pri queles noi espera, e li testimonie pri coses queles ne es visibil.

—Henry Ford

Vocabularium

NOTE:

7.1.4 Un lettre

Cosmopolis, 12-esim marte 1930.

Mi car amíco.

Yo mersía Vos cordialmen pro Vor amabil lettre de 10-esim ho-mensu. Yo joya leer, que anc Vu have interesse por li lingue international auxiliari, e yo constata, que yo esset rect, quande yo suposit, que Vu ne posse esser índiferent pri un question quel have grandissim importantie por li future de nor civilisation. Quam omni novones in li interlinguistica Vu comensa per decreter. In Vor curt lettre de quelc lineas Vu expresse Vor opiniones e exposi tant postulates concernent li lingue auxiliari, que, si Vu self vell provar satisfar les, Vu vell haver suficent occupation por quelc cent annus. Vu di, que li lingue deve esser ne europan; ma universal, i. e. un sintese de omni lingues existent sur li terra. Vu oblivia, que p. ex. li lingues chinesi e german es tam diferent, que un lingue, quel deve satisfar Vor postulate, vell esser quasi un hibride ínter harengo e sparro. Vu di, que li lingue deve esser idealic, i. e. li max perfect linguistic instrument pensabil. Vu oblivia, que ne omnicos pensabil es possibil.

Idealic lingues es, secun mi opinion, tam ínpossibil quam idealic states. Ili apartene ambi a Utopie. Un idealic lingue sam quam un idealic state es possibil solmen ta u vive idealic homes. Vu di adplu, que li lingue deve esser absolut regulari, nam tande it vell esser max facil. Yo ne posse comprender, pro quo regularitá vell esser identic con facilitá. Li lingue ne es solmen grammatica. It posse esser facil aprender simplic regules, ma it es tre desfacil memorar e usar ínacustomat paroles. Quant minu un nov lingue chargea li memorie del parlantes, tant plu facil it es.

It existet unquande témpores, quande homes credet seriosimen, que on posse crear, constructer e formar nov lingues arbitrarimen, ex profundore de su animas, secun principies, queles ili self inventet. It eveni ancor sovente, que on audi simil opiniones expresset de homes íniniciat. Plu valorosi quam inventer es constatar li ja factic existent international lingue, quel vive latent in li national lingues del occidental cultura. Li international vocabularium es tre rich, e pro que li scientie e technica ja possede un international terminologie, ili ne posse acceptar un altri lingue international quam un tal quel conserva ti internationalitá.

Vor devoet

Y. Z.

Vocabularium

7.2 Explanations

7.2.1 Adjectival suffixes

The three most used adjectival suffixes are:

-al

A general suffix showing a relationship or dependency: »national« from »nation«, »central« from »centre«, »diferential« from »diferentie«, etc.

-ic

Being so, possessing properties of the word:

NOTE:

From the adjective -ic we derive nouns with:

-ica and -ico

-ica refers to the name of the science or art in general, and -ico to the person practicing it. This is one situation where the -o does not necessarily denote a male.

What about -ical?

Generally, it is a good idea to resist the urge to express every -ical English word with another -ical in Interlingue (just -ic is preferred). But this is another situation where you can for extra precision, and a subject mentioned in Cosmoglotta [10] before. Because -ica as shown above refers to the entire branch of art or science, -al can make an adjective referring to it. Some examples where -ic or -ical could be preferred:

On a related note, beware of words where English is the odd man out such as »energic« (energetic) where only English has the added -et in the middle.

-aci

Tending to (similar to English -acious):

-an

Belonging to (often made into nouns with -ano, -ana, -ane):

-ari

According to, fitting, belonging to (English -ar):

-at

(On nouns.) Provided with something:

-ut

Very rich in, exuberant:

-atri

A resemblance but not entirely of the same quality (similar to English -ish):

-esc

(Of people.) Similar to, possessing similar qualities to (similar to English -esque)

-bil

From intransitive verbs: what can be done; from transitive verbs: what one can do.

From -ar verbs: -abil; from -er and -ir verbs: -ibil.

-in

Denotes ancestry, origin:

-osi

Rich in, full of:

The similar suffixes -iv and -ori were mentioned in lesson 3.

This finishes up the main suffixes seen in Interlingue for forming new words. On top of this are many other much less productive affixes that show up from time to time and are worth noting:

-id

having the qualities of a verb:

-nd

Mentioned once in a note above: what is to be done.

7.2.2 Divers affixes

Here are some more Latin- or Greek-derived affixes that are seen in words in Interlingue and most other western European languages:

anti-

»Against«.

arch(i)-

»Highest«, over-.

auto-

Auto-, »self«.

non-

»Non«.

pan-

Pan-.

proto-

Proto-.

pseudo-

Pseudo-, »false« (note: »p« is not silent!)

semi-, hemi-

»Half«.

tele-

Tele-, »far«.

-cide

»Killer of«.

-fer

»Bringing«, »bearing«.

-file

»-phile«, »loving«.

-fobe

»Fearing«.

-oide

»-oid«, »resembling«.

7.2.3 Word composition

Words can be joined together in a variety of ways.

The imperative of a verb can also be used to join words together: portamoné (a wallet, lit. a carry- money), parapluvie (an umbrella, lit. a block-rain), gardarobe (a wardrobe, lit. a guard-robe).

7.2.4 Word families

You might have noticed that properly applying the above derivation rules almost always produces existing international words with the same meaning. New ones can be made, as that happens consistently in natural languages. In the few cases where a regularly formed derivation form differs substantially from an existing international word, both forms are permitted. Examples:

Here are some example of how international words are created by deduction and composition from simple elements in the derivation of Interlingue:

stabil, instabil, stabilitá, ínstabilitá, stabilisar, stabilisation, stabilisator; station, stationar, stationari, stationario; state, statu, statue, statuarium, statuette, statuer, statute, statuari, static, statica; statist; statistic, statistica, statistico; stativ; statura; constar, constant; constantie, constatar; restar, restantie; distar, distantie; circumstar, circumstantie; etc.

Plus some others if one considers that the -stituer ending is also related to star: constituer, constitution, instituer, institute, institution, institutor, restituer, restitution, substituer, substitute, substitution.

8. Ottesim letion

8.1 Textus

8.1.1 Un somnie

»In facte, yo havet un drolli somnie just nu,« racontat un irlandeso. »Yo revat, que yo esset in Roma e visitat su Sanctitá, li Papa. Apen yo hat tappat sur li porta, quande il self apertet it. – ›A, Pat, es it Vu, qui ha venit, o alquí altri?‹ – ›Advere, Vor honore, it es yo e nequí altri.‹ – ›Ples venir con me in li superior etage!‹ il dit me. E ta esset un separat chambre, bellissim equipat, quel yo ne ha videt jamá. ›Ples seder,‹ dit su Sanctitá, ›quo Vu vole?‹ – Yo meditat durant un momente, e in fine yo dit: ›Un glass de fort trincage.‹ – ›Deve it esser frigid o calid?‹ – ›Calid,‹ yo respondet. E su Sanctitá departet por aportar li trincage, ma il esset absent tro long e interim yo avigilat me. Quam yo nu repente, que yo ne hat petit le dar me it frigid.«

Vocabularium

8.1.2 Aforismes

Pri un cose noi omni concorda: ne existe plu abominabil erras quam tis del altres.

It es sovente plu facil pardonar un injurie quel noi ha causat a un altri hom.

Li opinion de mani autor es acceptat del publica – quande il self ha abandonat it ja de long.

Mani nómina se idealist: proque il vole viver ne por, ma per un idé.

Un conosset patriot ha dit: »Yo ne comprende que alcun hom vole nascer quam extraniano.«

On posse tacer pro diversi motives: anc pro to que on have necos a dir.

Homes (anc Vu ha certmen constatat it) have plu de témpore, quande ili vole alquicos de nos, quam quande noi vole alquicos de ili.

A un yun mann, qui fanfaronat pri su saventies, un old mann dit: »Vu es felici, qui vive ancor in ti etá, quande on save omnicos.«

Quam ínprudent it vell esser, si noi vell dir a nor conossetes: »Yo have exact tant interesse por Vos quant Vu por me.«

Quande un hom di: »Un de nos erra,« yo save strax, quem il alude.

Certmen Vu conosse ti person, qui quande on parla pri un altri hom, comensa strax parlar pri se self.

—Otto Weiss

Vocabularium

8.1.3 Bon respondet

»Ples pardonar me, Senior,« dit un tre seriosi aparent mann a un jolli hom, qui stat fumant un grand cigare sur li strada, »quant cigares Vu fuma in un die?«

»O,« su response esset, »fórsan quar o quin.«

»Quin cigares in un die fa triant quin in un semane, circa un cent quinant in un mensu, e plu quam mill ott cent in un annu. Ples suposir, que Vu vell har economisat omni ti moné, quel Vu ha expenset a tabac! Vu vell posser fórsan esser li possessor de ti bell micri dom, quel Vu vide ci a levul.«

»Esque it es Vor, mi Senior?«

»O no, yo ne possede un dom.«

»Esque Vu save, de qui it es?«

»No.«

»It es mi!«

NOTE:

Vocabularium

8.1.4 Aforismes

To quo yo time max mult, es li timore.
—Montaigne

Ti qui es fidel, conosse solmen li trivial láteres del amore. Solmen li ínfidel conosse li tragedies de it.
—O. Wilde

Existe international artistes qui nequande aprende un lingue perfect: ili es li nativ extranianos.
—Moszkowski

Li fanatisme es li sol fortie de vole quel anc li debiles e li íncertes posse manifestar.
—Nietzsche

Poc homes pensa, ma omnes vole haver opiniones.
—Berkeley

Un mann qui interprende viver per li favor del musas, yo vole dir, per su poetic talentes, apari me in alcun maniere quam un puella qui vive per su charmes.
—Schopenhauer

Dilettantes, dilettantes, talmen tis qui cultiva un scientie o un arte pro amore o joy pri it, pro lor delecte, es nominat con despecte de tis qui ocupa se pri ili pro profite, proque les delecte solmen li moné, quel es ganiabil per to.
—Schopenhauer

In mani landes on have ti opinion: tri ásinos constitue junt un inteligent hom. Ma to es profundmen fals: pluri ásinos in concret fa li ásino in abstract, e it es un horribil animale.
—Grillparzer

Un solari sistema es solmen un punctuat profil del mundan genie, ma un homan ocul es li miniatura del solari sistema.
—Jean Paul

Vocabularium

8.1.5 Iguanodon

Durant mi viage a Stockholm yo visitat anc li natur-historic muséo e yo esset vermen impressionat per li granditá opressiv del squelette del antediluvian iguanodon. Benque yo conosset teoricmen li dimensiones e li grandore de ti prehistoric gigant, li realitá superat omni imaginationes. Li longore del caude es tam grand, que it ne have spacie in li grand sala, ma on ha devet divider it e posir li detra-parte paralel al squelette.

Su altesse, li prince de S., intrat con mult grandesse in li sala del iguanodon, ma bentost il esset un modest micri hom apu li colossal animale. Un dama regardat li gigant e dit: »It es ínpossibil. Etsi un tal animal ha vivet, qualmen on posse saver su nómine?«

Vocabularium

8.2 Explanations

8.2.1 Pronouns

In the preceding texts we have become very familiar with many of the pronouns in Interlingue. Let’s look at them as a whole.

Personal pronouns

Possessive pronouns

»Se« is used to form reflexive pronouns, and »unaltru« means »each other«.

Some examples:

Note that after prepositions the pronouns except »me« and »te« are in their subject form). This has long been a subject of discussion, with some preferring outright object forms (con le, a la, sin les) and others preferring the nominative (con il, con ella, con ili). But interestingly nobody has ever preferred the forms »con yo«, »con tu«, only »con me«, »con te«. Rule of thumb: always »me« and »te«, the others are up to personal preference. Whether the community will decide on one form over the other is tough to say: even English has yet to do so in cases such as »You are taller than ›me‹« (than + pronoun) vs. »You are taller than ›I‹« (short for »than I am«).

Demonstrative and determinative pronouns

»ti« is very general, which is why it is translated as both »this« and »that«. To add precision, add »ci« (here) or »ta« (there) after: »ti-ci« (this), »ti-ta« (that).

Interrogative and relative pronouns

Examples:

The most used relative pronouns are »quel« (singular) and »queles« (plural). For people »qui« is also used in the singular and plural, and for objects and abstract things also »quo«.

NOTE:

Various other pronouns

Note that many of these are simply formed by prefixing al-, ne-, etc. to other existing pronouns. They are not accented.

NOTE:

Because al-, ne-, -cunc etc. are never accented, the pronouns are often written without accents (»alquo« instead of »alquó«, »alqui« instead of »alquí«).

These pronouns are easy to remember with sentences incorporating the same forms:

Examples:

9. Ninesim letion

9.1 Textus

9.1.1 Un parol — un novelle

Si yo prende un parol ex un lingue, it va racontar me alcun cultur-historic facte. Lass nos, por exemple, prender li german parol »Infanterie.« Su form indica, que it es un parol pruntat ex li francesi lingue. Ergo li franceses deve har havet un cert influentie concernent li developation e organisation del german armés, altrimen on vell har conservat li genuin old german parol »Fußvolk,« usat ancor in li decisixesim secul. Ma li parol explica ancor plu. It di, que originalmen it deve har esset usat por un cert sorte del infanterie, a saver, por li guardie del Infante de Hispania. Li »Infante« de Hispania es identic con li international parol, e pro to anc de Interlingue, »infante,« originant del latin »infans,« quel es composit del prefix »in« (ne) e »fans« (parlant), to es, un hom, quel ancor ne posse parlar. Talmen yo veni in mi exploration a plu e plu lontan témpores e popules, e yo fini che li unesim conosset form e sense del parol, che li etimon. Li historie de un parol es un micri novelle, un excerpte ex un immensimen grand libre: li Historie del Homanité.

Vocabularium

9.1.2 Li grand idés

To quo es necessi por elevar li spíritu, ne es to, que un hom save omnicos, quo ha esset pensat e scrit in relation al spiritual natura, ne es to, que un hom deveni un enciclopedie, ma to, que li grand idés, in quel omni decovritiones termina, queles summa omni scienties, queles li filosof extrae de ínfinit detallies, es comprendet e sentit. It ne es li quantitá, ma li qualitá de saventie, quel determina li dignitá del anima. Un mann de immens erudition posse pro su manca de larg e extensiv idés, esser mult plu inferior in intelectu quam un laborero, qui, con micri saventies, támen ha trovat grand veritás. Un grand anima es format per poc grand idés, ne per infinitá de íncoherent detallies. Yo ha conosset tre doct homes, qui apparet a me tre povri in intelectu, proque ili havet null grand pensas. Quo vale to, que un mann ha studiat quantcunc detalliat li histories de Grecia e Roma, si per li historic documentes li grand idés de libertá e bellitá e bravitá e spiritual energie ne ha flammat quam vivent foyes in su anima?

—Channing

Vocabularium

9.1.3 Anecdotes

Li question

Du yun juristes, Miller e Brun, visitat sovente li sam yun dama. Un véspere Miller esset sol con ella. Il dit in tendri ton:

»Esque Vu pensa, María, que Vu posse subitmen abandonar patre e matre, sestra e fratre, ti plesent, comfortabil dom, e emigrar in li savagi West con un yun jurist, qui posse viver solmen per su profession, e serchar ta un nov hem, in quel ambi posse esser felici?«

Inclinante su bell cap sur li epoles de Miller, ella chuchotat tendrimen: »Yes, yo pensa que yo posse, Arnold.«

»Bon,« dit Miller, »it es Brun, qui intente emigrar e desira un sponsa, yo va mentionar to a il.«

Teophrástos dit

A un yun mann, qui sedet silent in un companie, Teophrástos, li famos grec filosof, dit: »Si Vu es folli, Vu acte sagimen; si Vu es sagi, Vu acte follimen.«

Vocabularium

9.1.4 Aforismes

Mem li deos combatte li stupiditá in van.

Li paroles es solmen vente – li erudition consiste solmen ex paroles – ergo li erudition es solmen vente.
—Swift

Li gazettes es li secund-indicatores del historie. Ma ili es sovente de plu ínnobli metalle quam li altri indicatores, e ea anc rarmen correct.
—Schopenhauer

Quande Pythagoras hat decovrit su conosset teorema, il aportat un hecatombe al deos. Desde to li boves treme, tam sovente quam un nov veritá es decovrit.
—Börne

Li majorité del homes lassa voluntarimen presser se in li carne li spine de un fals teorie, ma ili defende se per omni forties, si on vole denove extraer it.
—Pauly

9.2 Explanations

9.2.1 Adverbs

From adjectives we can create adverbs by adding the ending -men. This ending does not change the stress:

When the meaning is clear, the adjective by itself may function as an adverb:

Another way to form an adjective is to use in maniere:

Prepositions can be used to form adverbs: in (li) nocte = at night, in fine = finally, in general = in general, in ocasion = on occasion, per ocasion = by chance, etc.

Pronominal adverbs:

With the enclitic -cunc we get words like »ucunc« = wherever, »quamcunc« = however, as ever, »quandecunc« = whenever, etc.

Some more examples showing their function?

9.2.2 Conjunctions

The most frequently used conjunctions are:

There are also some subordinate conjunctions:

With »quam« and »que« together with other words we get a large number of conjunctions such as:

NOTE:

10. Decesim letion

10.1 Textus

10.1.1 »In comensa esset li parol«

Li famosi unesim frase del Evangelium de Johannes cela un profund sense, anc si noi comprende it litteralmen. Nam solmen per su capabilitá expresser per paroles su intern traviventies, su observationes e sentimentes, su perceptiones e desiras e comunicar les, evenit li metamorfose del hom ex un animale, solmen li linguistic talent corona li hom quam li dómino del creaturas. Sin parol ne vell exister un clar notion, sin notion null pensation, sin lingue null alt spiritual vive. Nam li singul notiones, per li medie de queles li hom pensa, es strictissim ligat con cert paroles, un real, ver pensada sin paroles ne es possibil. Concedet que mani brevi pensation, mani actiones de vole eveni instinctiv o intuitiv, un plu alt spiritual vive, quel eleva se súper obscur fluctuationes de pur instinctes e perceptiones a plen claritá e libertá del conceptiv pensada, es e va esser connectet a linguistic capacitá. Omni spiritual valores li hom debi finalmen a su talent de articulat parlation. Novális di unquande in su aforismes: »Li grammatica es li dinamica del spiritual dominia. Un parol de comande move armés, li parol ‹libertá’ nationes.«

Quande li poet e li pensator vaga líber ad in li immens dominia de pensas, lor ales es li parol. Li parlant hom victe li circumant natura per li parol e quam creator forma per li parol su propri, subjectiv munde, in contraritá e quam contrast al sensualmen perceptibil fenomenes: li munde del spíritu – de su spíritu. On ha dit, que li hom es un hibride ínter deo e animale, e yo vole dir que li paroles es li scalunes de ti scaliere celesti, along quel il prova grimpar súper lu pur animalic ad in li luce del spritualitá. De to seque anc, que li lingue da nos li fundament e li unesim base de omni cultura.

—Güntert

10.1.2 Li mult lingues de Europa

Li lingual situation in li hodial Europa es paradoxal.

Li material civilisation, li scientie, e mem li arte unifica se plu e plu. Li cultivat europano senti se quasi in hem in omni landes queles have europan civilisation, it es, plu e plu, in li tot munde. Hodie presc omni states guerrea per li sam armes. Sin cessa li medies de intercommunication ameliora se, e in consequentie de to li terra sembla diminuer se. Un parisano es nu plu proxim a un angleso o a un germano quam il esset ante cent annus a un paisano francesi.

Li civilisation tende vers unitá.

It existe solmen un scientie, a quel li erudites de omni nationes contribue, partú on studia li sam problemas per li sam procedes, per li sam instrumentes. Li laboratorias de America e Japan labora pri li sam questiones quam tis de Europa. Li observatorias del tot munde prepara un carte de ciel, in quel ili execute chascun un parte. Un modern erudito es, si il vole o ne, li colaborator de omnes, qui in li tot munde cultiva li sam scientie. It existe, por chascun specialitá scientific, un micri comunité de erudites, qui, amicos o rivales, conosse unaltru, seque li activitá de unaltru e reacte un a li altri.

Li scientie, quel es un, dómina un tecnica, quel anc es un. Chascun decovrition scientific change li procedes de fabrication e li conditiones de production. E omni nov procede de fabrication es rapidmen conosset in li tot munde.

Li aferes comercial es international. Li industries de un branche conclude cartelles trans li frontieras. Li bankes del tot munde es alliat per comun operationes.

Li ovreros ha sentit, que, in regard a lor patrones, ili have identic interesses. Li formul »Laboreros de omni landes, unia vos« ha evocat ecó in li classes de ovreros de omni landes.

Li rel-vias, li naves, queles fa possibil li relationes ínter li homes, deve devenir simil, caus necessitá. Li postal servicie ha esset fortiat unificar se por conformar se secun li principies del union postal universal.

Li vestes deveni partú li sam. Li guerre ne ha impedit li feminin modes subir in li tot munde occidental presc li sam changes in li sam témpore.

Omnicos va uniformisar se.

Durant omni to li lingues, queles servi quam organes por li civilisation, es tre diversi, ili deveni constantmen plu mult. Li conossenties del german, anglesi, hispan, francesi e italian ne sufice plu a tis queles vole sequer li currente del tot civilisation modern.

Chascun nation, quamcunc micri it es, vole haver su propri lingue de civilisation. Presc chascun nation de Europa ha obtenet autonomie e nu li conossentie de duant lingues ne sufice por sequer li civilisation de sol Europa.

Por experir li obstacules quel resulta de to, sufice transpassar un lingual frontiera. Por tis, doctos o practicos, qui deve sequer li currente del labor fat in li munde, li diversitá del lingues del civilisation complica li labor in un maniere íntolerabil. Li aprension de un scientie o tecnica deveni per chascun die plu laborosi, e li necessitá aprender diversi lingues e sempre plu diversi, adjunte un cargo, quel ne cessa far se plu e plu pesant.

In li sam gradu quam li civilisation deveni plu uniform, li lingues have a expresser li sam coses per materialmen diferent, ma paralel procedes. Li notiones ne varia con li paroles, queles expresse les. Li lingues de Europa per to quo ili expresse, tende a devenir li fidel calcationes de unaltru.

On save quel desfacilitás incontra un congress international pro li diversitá del lingues, ne solmen si it acte se pri un congress de homes con mediocri education, queles ne conosse foren lingues, ma anc li congresses de homes alt educat, nam quam rarmen ili ha havet témpore aprender parlar fluentmen un foren lingue! Li congresses de un partise, quam li socialistic, quel confesse internationalisme, es fat tre desfacil per li necessitá traducter omnicos in adminim du lingues, e li delegates del micri landes deve esser electet solmen ínter tal homes, queles bon conosse un de ti lingues queles es usat in li congress. E it es ínevitabil haver un comun lingue por far possibil un ver discussion. Por ti scope on besona un lingue, quel es facilmen aprensibil e aplicabil e neutral. Solmen un lingue artificial responde a ti conditiones.

Li practic necessitá haver un lingue international es evident. E proque un tal lingue es possibil, it deve esser introductet tam bentost quam possibil.

(Secun A. Meillet, professore de Collège de France.)

10.2 Explanations

10.2.1 Syntax

Syntax in Interlingue is for the most part very similar to English, with some notable differences in places such as adjectives where they can also be placed after the noun (general rule of thumb: the longer the adjective, the more it feels right to place it after the noun). Some other small differences exist, some of which are seen in the following examples.

The regular word order in Interlingue is:

The same applies to subordinate clauses.

Note some important differences that take place when the word order is changed. Words such as »anc«, »solmen«, etc. quantify the word they stand in front of. The word »ne« also negates the word it stands in front of. Other examples: »tro«, and »tre«.

More on the rule of thumb for adjectives: they tend to stand before the noun when they are short or refer to the character of the noun, and after when longer, less directly related, part of a subordinate clause, adding extra information, etc.

In the first two sentences above it is somewhat a matter of taste whether to say »russ caviare« or »international lingue«, though the word »international« being long feels a bit more right after the noun. The next three sentences however are much more clear cut (»necessi-por-su-viage-arangeamentes« would be odd).

Dependent clauses: note the same word order.

In sentences with questions (direct and indirect) that do not start with question pronouns (where, why…) or adverbs are usually formed with the general question word »esque« (lit. »is that«), but may be formed without it.

Other options for »esque« in subordinate clauses are »ca« and »si«. The third setence could start with »Yo ne save, ca…« or »Yo ne save, si…«.

The difference between forming questions, wishes (optative phrases) and conditional sentences:

For the conditional you can add a »in ti casu« (in that case) if wished to translate English »then« (if she had known her mother, then she would have…), but »vell« on its own is always enough. Also note that in the conditional, both parts of the sentence use »vell«. This is like saying »if she would have known her mother she would have…«, because both parts are conditional. One does see the perfect past starting off these types of sentences from time to time, however: »Si ella hat conosset su matre, ella vell har…«

Where some languages use a preposition (especially »a«) before the object of a verb and others don’t, Interlingue prefers to not use them. Rule of thumb: if in doubt, try going without a preposition if the meaning is still clear.

The same goes for reflexive verbs (verbs using »se«). English uses them infrequently but still does in some places such as »I’m going to find *myself* something to eat« which would be written »Yo va trovar alquó a manjar« and not »Yo va trovar *me* alquó a manjar«.

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